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  ˣʲô˼ǽΪһõ¶˳ڵĶ

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      ںʷʫУԶһϣսʿڳǽƳս˵ĺ
һƳΪ֮㵹λ˸̾˵ΪһŮ˴ʮ
ֵõġϣʫŷӵ˹ıУӴϣ
ȥĺ˵ʵϲûнٳˣֻ׬ĻӰϣ
Ϊ֮սľ˵һҲֻһӰѡ

      ʫһȷ纣ףĽֻһӰ
һħӰŷӵ˹ıԺܺõؽȿĳЩŷҵĹ
֮

 һȺǲõ

      Դӹǻǿ
вĺⲢ֣Ϊ˼յĹͼȷ
˵㺡

      1789Ĵͳ蹫һ޲׼Ȩķ
ʢҵڻŵѧУС͵
ѡضмᣬ⣬ʵҰš
ʼ˲ԼдйƵ޶ǹˡ1951ѹ
춡ѵĸˡıսУֹأҲŲ1968
ֽݿ˹工˵̹˵ײұϼͬʱҲǲɹʫ˺;
ңþӷڼ뷨1956¼ᣬϼ춲
̬ȶ£һξΣ1988ŵѧ
Ҳǹˣ䵱˹ȫ֡

      ӢϷɺѧҲضͬ·ˣ
1884괴ķѱ˺üλ޲׼ҡС˵Ρ
ʵ֮ʱ˼塣ʮʫW.H.µǺ˹ٷҡ˹Χ
һȺʫˡḻŮҶ˿µĹ
·Ҳдԡ

      ɴͷ˹Դأ¹ϷҲϣأмᣬҲΪ
˹Ӣۡ¹ľء˹ΪӮöʮһŵڣ
ȴ˳¹̵աʫ˿һ
йܡС˵ŵɺϷҴ
ŷڷȨϿ˸ܣȻ֮ѡ

      Ͷŷ˱ŷҸз֮ʹ˹ζ
·ʫſƷ˹С˵ҷҮɱ˵
⣬ʹ߶޲׼ңҲûΪεĴ
һϵ˿չᡣŵᡢ˹ݶɿˡ޴Ļ
ؽܾĥ⵽Χ𣬻ٴһ֡ڡ״̬
ݿ˹工˵ġʫˡغͲŮʫ˿λŵ
⵽ĹࡣҰ˹ʮ
֮ᣬ1938˹ֶԲֵνа˳

      ڱŷҲвңǣ춱ŷʷĻ
˼ĺں̶ܴϽرŷڻܣһ޲
׼ҵ·ŷͬۡ

      ܹٷԹ˼ϣҲв춾ڵ
˶Ϊμսͷ˹Ķս򹲲壬е
֪ɱĽܿˡ׶ءĿںʹ
̫һȡڡȻֻعڽ̡¡
ҲǳƵ屳ġ㯵һԼ˹̹
и޲׼ɫʣҲʼյҡ

      άȨ֮ʱвŷһԸǰ
۷ʣ˹ֶϣõ۵֧֣֮ϱЩŷ
ϣܳ⣬󶼳֪ʵǵļ
ţҴ˸Ŀֲ࣬¶ǵĻСŰʮ
ᣬʮ˹ؽ¶˹ֵġѹС˵ĺڰ(1941)
ԢС˵ׯ԰(1945)ԤС˵1984꡷(1948)ʹ˼
Ƶа⵽ԵͬʱϲԵĽ⹹Ӱе
֪ʶӵձע⡣1948꣬ɿ˹ء˹¡ء͵ºŵɵλŷ
Һġܱ֮(TheGodThatFailed)棬Щյͽе
˼֮Ҳˣķ澪˵֪ǴĽǶȶ
ʮ¸˷˼ҸšǵĹ֮Сͷϡߣ
ڳάеĲϣأѾָΪ˹ͬı


      ļλŷң˶ǻŵѧ
̳֮⣬ĸԵһͬص춣Ƕȥ
ʵĹ塱ʵؿ죬ǶԹаøУй
һݵ£ǣǻ߼̿а񣬻߷
˼γѡ

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      ӢвѪġٸĴͳʹ֮ʱӢ֪ʶ
Ӳ編ĿȺͼɺŽĸ

      ͬضԹȶİǿңû飬
û¡ܹϴأʮ¸ǰ˵ֿ֧
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ǴʹԿһԭ1918꣬س桶֮·о
壬ʮ¸δҲδǱһԵľ̬ȡ
ڸ鵼пָӦռ룬
˼͹ڴһõδᣬӮ̫Ȩ
뼯Ȩ˵ǡΪڵл壬Ʒ
ȡƣȳϹߵĺҪֿ߶Թ
η塣

      ڸʵУ⾳ԤڹҳΪ[]
ʽУй˾ӹȡʣӶо뱩Σն谭һ
ܵĻʽִȨ⡣ڸۡ
ƶµĿѧ⣬Ϊȴ˵Ҫ
ҰǵĲŻȷ׸Ȩʵ壬ȻǷԼĴ嶯ô
ѧ;ܷ١صԤ׼֤ʵ


      1920꣬Ϊŷ֪ʶĴ
Ӽǣα߱ıɶ㲻λѧҵ۹⡣չ֮
ԼԹʧصĳЩΪʮ¸
κֻЩؽķԮ֡ԥ֮ᣬ
Ŀ챨棬Сӡʲά˵ۺʵ(1920)Ӵˣ
Ӣ춸Ϊľأָժĵ⡣ͬ꣬Ӧ
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      άȨȨһĻĻĶǵĳ֮ᣬڡȨ
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ΪȨ֮ȨͬʱζŲƸռС˼ľѧ
󲻽ϵģҸĸҪĴʵϵġȨ֮
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(10ҳ)ͬʱԷ̵ıʷдɹμЩɹȡ
ΪߵˡţѶߣīϣն
ǽ(47ҳ)ӦΪעǣʮ¸
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      ؽһָ˹ֵάƶȵķľ塢
塣ϰѾһաһ޴ļص
ߣΪһȨڴһʱеΣ֪
ѻԼˡ1968꣬վݿ˹工֮ᣬһ
ǿҿ顣

      Դؿе֮ᣬһ춹ʺƽ˶ʮ
йڼ䣬λ˼ҵģйͳĻеҵ徲Ϊҵ
񡣼֤һϵʷأȻǴͳϵڽͽ
Ϊеǻʥеһԣ㲻Ӧ׷һȺȥж񡣡


  ɵ

      غɵͬ壬˳׷⣬Ƕ
춶˵ͬ顣P.P.ڡоԣǻʼ
ռǵи˹С˵(ָɵġҵߡ)е
˹ͨ˵Ѷͬ鲢ϵߡ
(161162ҳ)ԳΪѱġһͨ޲ߡж˼
ʱۡͶ˶Ϊѱ׫дԺһϵۡھ
ķ(1892)͡׷˵ְҵ(1894)Ե˼Ĺ
űһʮ¸ı֮ᣬɾ
ͦΪʲά˵Ա绤

      ڵ˼뼫Ϊìܡһ棬ΰһ
棬ܰظɭѧɳѧӰ죬īᡢϣյȡ
ΰͬ顣ֱЩΰʵᣬ
ڡߡ(1938)һУϷӰ˹ͷӲģС


      ɷ1931꣬Ī˹ƶȹʮٳܵͿ
ʻӵʮάȨȹ¡ڻӭ
˷ܵ˵δԤʾôǾͿԺ޾ɫ
ЦݵδˡҲ֪ɣ춷ѱͬص
Щ̵ûжǶȻҲܿһλң
Ϊÿ˶ѰĲͬ;ڷչĴ꣬ڡڹ
Ѱռǡһڡ̹(1894)жڽ̵αԵĽ¶һ
ĺȥѰһʽ˼
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ϣҸϵ۵֪ʶϵ۾ҵҸϣ1933
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֮սᡣ

  ġ

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㷺Ľж˹̩߶꣬ЩǿԶ
עʼж˹̩һŷǱ塣ʮ¸ᣬһ
ά¾һ棬ǡޣޡԤеľ
ƶȶɱ1919귢ԡ1921ͱ
չս˵͸ʮһ˸
صķǱ˼롣ŷ˹ĲⱣ춷˹ͱƽ
λ

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˳̸˹1935628յ̸¼Լ̸¼дռ
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ͼӰӪҡڶʮͨ߶Ӫ
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ЩʥȨò˿ϵƶȡҸеʹͷŭġѹ
һкгҪҲ̱״̬ˡֻҪҶƶȷ΢
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01ҳ)һλͬʱ֮Է˹̸ֵ¼ĸԭ
֮춶ԹȻһ˿룬ͶԼ
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δ˹ֱ˵ͬ档ϣܿһΰ
ĳ־޻򱯾磬ȻԿ϶˵˼룬뼫Ȩ
Ǽݵġ

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      깫Ĺһ治ͬڼ͵µġ(1
936)УȻйٷΪԼΪһ;İŵչʾΰɾ͵ĳ
ǣļ͵µҰԽЩޡȣڽеļ͵
ģǶڽ̵Ĳпɱ֮۵αڽ̡ΣΪһ¼ң
͵¸еȱľǰ䴥ͬļ͵µʹʹе
ظεǣͬ뷴ͬ춼͵˵ζţҪ
壬Ͳܰͬԡ͵µȻԸͬΪ°ܻΪ
ԼĲµȨٴΣĽǶһЭ
̵ĵԭ෴ΪѧΪĹߡӦΪ
һֻдʵϣŷ춸(ο͵¡
ѧۡ)19366£͵ڸ߶Ϸ˵ĵģʱͷ
ĺΰҺܿǸݾͷԼӴ(Yagoda)
Զɱġ߶֮ɷǣͬ6
ݰ˹ֳ֮ΪΨһȫܷ

      еѶǼ͵¾ġڡԡ
Ͷ˵ɷչһ˵ɷչ˵Ĵʾ䡣
Ȼ￴ıǴǸʱαײȱ
ɣܼ  
      춼͵µʵġĳЩΪԶ
ľܵ෽ѡ͵»Ӧ˵Լ
ʵֲûжҡţֳˡ̸(1937)һ
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˵ǣ͵Ȼָ˷شҽα׶ˡ

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ñȷż͵19301935Թϵġ¶ļ
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      ݰױ˵춼͵»ŵķҶżӶ͵µһ̸
һԶԲʺ춼ᶨˣһĻġ
޳ˣĲμش壬Ƕôʣһ϶
ģȻΪģѲþͻʧ(ͬ飬90
91ҳ)ǣзζǣżӶ͵³ĺĵĻҲԼ
ϣΪ׷ΪܶˣԼľ͵һ
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˼硣͵µļͥڽ̴ͳʹСܵȾ빲ʱ
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Եһұʽ˼ʹһʽȻڡӵ
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и룬Ȼˣһʱ֮ᣬչջá

  ˹̹˵

      ˹̹˳ʱλҪЩ˹ֵ
ﵽʮʮľôʱڣд
ܼ࣬סһڵǮֽţֻռľʱд
δ¡ŭѡ(1939)չ˹ҵ
ũĳѹչ

      չᣬ˹̹˳ġ˹С(1948)ԳĿ
ĲҪһƶȣǼ¼ͨ˵ճǣ߾
ɵĿ֮ڵ˹ֵġФҵ4º͵
8¶ûʲôܹ˹ʯͷͭͼϵƳ
ӡФ񲻽ÿһݣҹÿһݵÿһ䷿
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ߣйġФҵʹѷɫ٣˹
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ΨǣФȴͳߴϼ͡ͳ˧뱻ͳ˧
֮֡ĬйͬʮϤġ˹̹Բ޷̵ıʵд
ֵʱ˹ֵĳĳݣʷҲֻа¹˹
ۿԱȼ硣ʲôϣ˶Ҫ˹¼͵ѧ
֤˹µġ֮ʡ(ipsedixit)öһ۵ǷһǶԴ˲
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˸ߵĳݣôȵŻ᲻أͨʲô
ķʽϵ¼͡Фҵʹ˹
˹ĴûʲôȷĻǸһеġ


      ҲΪЩʵļ¼ɣ˹̹ڸβѵعƵ
Ȿ齫ܵУɽָժĻ⣬ǴԲʲά
ѺáʵϣƵ

      ʮʷɣ֮ᣬ˹̹1962귢ߴŰȮ
ʮݵĿ챨桶ͲС˹̹˶ʵҲĳЩ
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ŵġФҵһ꣬˹̹ٻŵ
ѧԺΪԼֵĺߡ1964꣬˹̹ٻͳѫ
£ΪƷչǧ˰̬

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Ѫȵһһǿˡ˿ڡ͵˥΢һʫԣǿ
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Լһѡôǿ˶ȡȨ֮ᣬ֪ʶͨڵĹ
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ħʵ壬ΪĻЩ£
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ûоġաԭŷ˽͵ŵļ̳С
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